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はてなキーワード: complexとは
I've noticed a non-negligible number of people who have not only completed compulsory education in regular classes but have also received higher education and graduated from university, yet struggle with reading comprehension (understanding the meaning of text), cannot read long texts, and even have difficulty understanding videos.
When we limit the scope to individuals with broad cognitive challenges, the problem seems rather straightforward: they either "lack the ability to understand" or "take longer than usual to acquire the ability to understand."
Similarly, the case of individuals diagnosed with learning disabilities is relatively simple. While they may not have broad cognitive challenges, they require different approaches and training due to their unique learning styles.
However, it is perplexing that university graduates without broad cognitive challenges or diagnosed learning disabilities struggle to understand not only written text but also simplified video content.
I suspect that the underlying causes might include gaps in the horizontal transfer of experiences and knowledge, a severe lack of adaptability, and an extreme deficit in metacognition. Has there been any research on these issues? Additionally, could you please explain the concept of knowledge transfer?
(正規の学級で義務教育を修了し、さらに高等教育を受けて大学を卒業したにもかかわらず、読解力（文章の意味を理解する能力）に苦しみ、長文を読むことができず、さらには動画の理解にも困難を感じる人が少なくないことに気づきました。
認知能力に広範な課題を抱える個人に範囲を限定すると、問題は比較的単純です。「理解する能力がない」か、「理解する能力を獲得するのに通常よりも時間がかかる」かのいずれかです。
同様に、学習障害と診断された個人の場合も比較的単純です。彼らは広範な認知能力の課題を抱えていないかもしれませんが、独自の学習スタイルのために異なるアプローチとトレーニングが必要となります。
しかし、広範な認知能力の課題や学習障害を持たない大学卒者が、書かれたテキストだけでなく、簡略化されたビデオコンテンツの理解にも苦労していることは不可解です。
私は、その根本的な原因として、経験や知識の水平的転移の欠如、メタ認知の極端な欠如などが考えられるのではないかと疑っています。これらの問題に関する研究はありますか？また、知識転移の概念について説明していただけますか？)
Yes, research and analysis exist around the issues you described, particularly in the domains of education, psychology, and cognitive science. Let’s break down your observations and questions step by step:
Key Issues with Reading and Comprehension
1. Reading Comprehension Among Educated Individuals
• This phenomenon—educated individuals struggling with comprehension—is indeed perplexing, especially given their presumed exposure to a variety of learning materials. It suggests that education systems sometimes emphasize rote learning and surface-level knowledge acquisition over deeper understanding, critical thinking, and metacognition.
• Horizontal Transfer Gaps: This refers to the inability to apply knowledge or skills learned in one context to another. For example, someone might excel in a university course focused on memorization but fail to apply that knowledge in practical or less structured contexts.
• Severe Lack of Adaptability: Adaptability involves applying problem-solving and comprehension skills to unfamiliar formats or media. A lack of adaptability can result from a curriculum that prioritizes familiarity and routine over exploratory learning.
• Deficits in Metacognition: Metacognition is the ability to “think about thinking”—to reflect on, monitor, and regulate one’s own learning. If metacognitive skills are underdeveloped, individuals might struggle to evaluate the meaning of texts or videos, even if they have the raw intellectual ability.
Research Insights
1. Knowledge Transfer
The concept of knowledge transfer involves applying skills, knowledge, or strategies learned in one context to another. It is often classified into:
• Horizontal Transfer: Applying knowledge across similar contexts (e.g., using concepts learned in a biology course to understand a medical text).
• Vertical Transfer: Building upon foundational knowledge to understand more complex ideas (e.g., using basic algebra to solve advanced calculus problems).
Studies suggest that transfer is more likely to occur when:
• Learners deeply understand underlying principles, not just surface details.
• Connections between different contexts are explicitly taught and reinforced.
• Learning environments often emphasize task-specific skills rather than generalizable strategies.
• Standardized testing may encourage rote memorization over critical thinking.
• Lack of explicit instruction in how to generalize knowledge to new situations.
Research highlights the importance of metacognition in learning. Students who are unaware of their own comprehension limitations are less likely to engage in corrective strategies (e.g., rereading, seeking clarification). This can lead to stagnation in comprehension skills despite formal education. Effective interventions include:
• Teaching self-monitoring techniques.
• Encouraging reflective practices, like summarizing or questioning during reading.
4. Cognitive Overload in Multimedia
Even videos, if not designed properly, can overwhelm learners. The Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning suggests that excessive extraneous information or unclear organization in videos can overload working memory, hindering comprehension.
Strategies and Research-Based Solutions
1. Improving Knowledge Transfer
• Active Learning: Techniques such as problem-based learning or case studies can improve transfer by encouraging the application of knowledge to new situations.
• Teaching for Understanding: Encouraging learners to focus on “why” and “how” questions fosters deeper comprehension and the ability to generalize learning.
• Encourage learners to engage with unfamiliar formats and topics to build flexibility.
• Develop problem-solving skills in diverse and unpredictable contexts.
3. Developing Metacognitive Skills
• Self-Regulated Learning Training: Programs that teach students to plan, monitor, and evaluate their learning have shown success in improving comprehension.
• Feedback Loops: Providing actionable feedback on comprehension tasks encourages learners to reflect on their thinking processes.
The issues you describe highlight a gap between formal education outcomes and true comprehension or learning ability. Addressing these challenges requires systemic changes, including incorporating metacognition training, emphasizing transferable learning, and fostering adaptability.
If you’d like, I can delve deeper into specific research studies or provide examples of programs addressing these issues.
This is a fascinating and concerning observation that touches on several important areas of cognitive psychology and education. Let me address this systematically.
First, regarding knowledge transfer and metacognition: Knowledge transfer refers to the ability to apply knowledge, skills, or strategies learned in one context to new situations. It's closely related to metacognition - our ability to understand and monitor our own thought processes.
Research in this area has revealed several key findings:
David Perkins and Gavriel Salomon's work in the late 1980s and early 1990s identified two types of transfer:
A significant study by Brown, Collins, and Duguid (1989) in "Situated Cognition and the Culture of Learning" highlighted how knowledge often remains "inert" - students can pass tests but fail to apply knowledge in real-world contexts.
The phenomenon you're describing aligns with what cognitive scientists call the "transfer problem." Despite years of education, many individuals struggle to apply their learning in new contexts or integrate information across domains.
Some relevant research directions:
1. Cognitive Load Theory (Sweller et al.)
Shows how working memory limitations affect learning and transfer. Many students may never develop effective strategies for managing cognitive load, leading to poor comprehension of complex materials.
2. Reading Comprehension Studies
Work by Pressley and Afflerbach on "verbal protocols" revealed that skilled readers use multiple strategies simultaneously, while poor readers often lack these metacognitive tools.
3. Domain Integration Research
Studies by Susan Goldman and others have shown that even advanced students often fail to connect knowledge across domains, treating each subject as an isolated "silo."
Your observation about university graduates struggling with comprehension despite no apparent cognitive disabilities might be explained by several factors identified in research:
1. Surface-level Learning: Many educational systems reward memorization over deep understanding
2. Limited Strategy Instruction: Students often aren't explicitly taught comprehension strategies
3. Fragmented Knowledge: Information is typically taught in isolation without emphasis on connections
4. Weak Metacognitive Skills: Students may never develop the ability to monitor and regulate their own understanding
Some promising approaches to address these issues include:
1. Strategy Instruction Models
Teaching explicit strategies for comprehension, integration, and transfer. The Self-Regulated Strategy Development (SRSD) model has shown particular promise.
2. Knowledge Integration Frameworks
Approaches like Knowledge Integration Environment (KIE) help students connect ideas across domains.
3. Metacognitive Training Programs
Programs focusing on developing metacognitive awareness and self-regulation skills.
Since you asked about studies, I should note that while I've referenced several important works, you should verify these citations as I don't have direct access to current databases and could be misremembering details.
Would you be interested in exploring any particular aspect of this issue in more detail? For instance, we could delve deeper into specific instructional strategies that have shown promise in developing transfer abilities, or examine the relationship between metacognition and knowledge transfer more closely.
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In today’s fast-paced travel industry, small businesses need to stay nimble and connected. One way to do this is by tapping into flight APIs. These powerful tools can elevate your travel booking system, making it easier to offer competitive flight options. So, what’s the the best flight API for your small travel business? Let’s explore some of the top choices out there.
Understanding Flight APIs: What Are They?
At their core, flight APIs allow access to flight data. Think of them as a bridge connecting users to various airlines and travel service providers. By integrating these APIs, small businesses can fetch flight schedules, availability, and prices, helping travelers find the deals they need, all in one place.
Skyscanner API: A Treasure Trove of Options
Skyscanner API stands out as a favorite. It's like having your own travel assistant at your fingertips. This API provides comprehensive data on flights, accommodations, and car rentals across multiple airlines. With its user-friendly structure, you can seamlessly integrate it into your website. Plus, it’s excellent for small businesses looking to offer a wide range of options without getting bogged down by complex systems.
Amadeus API: Powering Your Travel Solutions
Amadeus isn't just a giant in the travel world; it’s a goldmine for small businesses too. This API provides robust functionalities, allowing you to access information about flight availability, fare rules, and even check-in details. Imagine being able to offer your customers personalized travel experiences, all thanks to the wealth of data Amadeus supplies.
Kiwi.com API: The Flexibility You Need
Kiwi.com API gives you the flexibility to combine different airlines and find unique routes. It’s like having a magic wand that creates unconventional itineraries! You can cater to budget travelers who love to explore offbeat paths. In a world where travelers crave personalized experiences, this API offers just that.
Travelport API: A Well-Rounded Option
If you’re looking for a well-rounded travel API, Travelport does not disappoint. It offers access to a multitude of airlines and provides detailed pricing and availability. Using Travelport, you can manage bookings and even handle customer service queries seamlessly. It’s like having a one-stop shop for all your travel API needs.
Sabre API: The Industry Leader
Sabre API is another heavyweight champion in the travel industry. With a vast network and established reputation, it provides detailed flight information and booking capabilities. If your small business aims to grow into a trusted name, partnering with Sabre can help you reach a broader audience.
What to Consider When Choosing an API
Choosing the right API can be overwhelming, but it boils down to a few essential factors:
• Cost: Is there a fee to use the API? Always weigh the costs against your potential revenue.
• Documentation: How easy is it to integrate? Well-documented APIs are easier and less time-consuming to implement.
• Support: If you run into issues, how responsive is their support team? Quality customer support can save you a lot of headaches.
For small travel businesses, flight APIs are more than just tools; they’re keys to unlocking wider opportunities. Each API has its unique perks, so it’s crucial to find the one that aligns with your business goals. With the right flight API, you can simplify booking processes, enhance customer satisfaction, and ultimately boost your bottom line. Embrace the innovation, and let your travel business soar!
Source & Published by: https://www.namantechnolab.com/
In today’s fast-paced travel industry, small businesses need to stay nimble and connected. One way to do this is by tapping into flight APIs. These powerful tools can elevate your travel booking system, making it easier to offer competitive flight options. So, what’s the the best flight API for your small travel business? Let’s explore some of the top choices out there.
Understanding Flight APIs: What Are They?
At their core, flight APIs allow access to flight data. Think of them as a bridge connecting users to various airlines and travel service providers. By integrating these APIs, small businesses can fetch flight schedules, availability, and prices, helping travelers find the deals they need, all in one place.
Skyscanner API: A Treasure Trove of Options
Skyscanner API stands out as a favorite. It's like having your own travel assistant at your fingertips. This API provides comprehensive data on flights, accommodations, and car rentals across multiple airlines. With its user-friendly structure, you can seamlessly integrate it into your website. Plus, it’s excellent for small businesses looking to offer a wide range of options without getting bogged down by complex systems.
Amadeus API: Powering Your Travel Solutions
Amadeus isn't just a giant in the travel world; it’s a goldmine for small businesses too. This API provides robust functionalities, allowing you to access information about flight availability, fare rules, and even check-in details. Imagine being able to offer your customers personalized travel experiences, all thanks to the wealth of data Amadeus supplies.
Kiwi.com API: The Flexibility You Need
Kiwi.com API gives you the flexibility to combine different airlines and find unique routes. It’s like having a magic wand that creates unconventional itineraries! You can cater to budget travelers who love to explore offbeat paths. In a world where travelers crave personalized experiences, this API offers just that.
Travelport API: A Well-Rounded Option
If you’re looking for a well-rounded travel API, Travelport does not disappoint. It offers access to a multitude of airlines and provides detailed pricing and availability. Using Travelport, you can manage bookings and even handle customer service queries seamlessly. It’s like having a one-stop shop for all your travel API needs.
Sabre API: The Industry Leader
Sabre API is another heavyweight champion in the travel industry. With a vast network and established reputation, it provides detailed flight information and booking capabilities. If your small business aims to grow into a trusted name, partnering with Sabre can help you reach a broader audience.
What to Consider When Choosing an API
Choosing the right API can be overwhelming, but it boils down to a few essential factors:
• Cost: Is there a fee to use the API? Always weigh the costs against your potential revenue.
• Documentation: How easy is it to integrate? Well-documented APIs are easier and less time-consuming to implement.
• Support: If you run into issues, how responsive is their support team? Quality customer support can save you a lot of headaches.
For small travel businesses, flight APIs are more than just tools; they’re keys to unlocking wider opportunities. Each API has its unique perks, so it’s crucial to find the one that aligns with your business goals. With the right flight API, you can simplify booking processes, enhance customer satisfaction, and ultimately boost your bottom line. Embrace the innovation, and let your travel business soar!
Source & Published by: https://www.namantechnolab.com/
https://note.com/ratata_ratata/n/n4b4dbdab399d
これ、そもそもキャッチャーインザライの原作でどういうシーンで発言されたかの意図を読み取らないと理解することは困難です。
原文は
"I thought what I'd do was, I'd pretend I was one of those deaf-mutes."
となっていて、この文が笑い男のロゴの周りをグルグルまわっています。
"deaf-mutes"は聾唖者、聴覚障害者の意味になりますが、現代では避けた方が良い表現で差別的な意味合いがあります。
なので「耳と目を閉じ」はマイルドすぎる表現で、「ゴミ野郎」ぐらいで良いと思います。
「聞こえなくて話せないゴミ野郎のフリをして生きていこうと思った」
ぐらいの意味合いになっていて、そもそもdeaf-mutesな人間を侮辱・批判しているようにも見えます。
この発言があったのは主人公のホールデン（16歳）がなんやかんやで打ちのめされて家出しようと思って街をブラブラしながら
「あー世の中つまらんしアホくさいわー」
って思いながら考えたことです。
確か山の中に小屋を作ってそこで誰とも関わらずに生きていけば幸せだわ、とかそういう感じで家出しようとします。
「まぁええか」
で片付けてしまう、「キャッチャーインザライ」はそういう話です。
思春期ってそういう時期あるよね、という小説なんですが、まぁ口調がドギツイし差別的なのでアメリカの教育委員会に目を付けられて図書室から追放されました。
その結果、逆にコアな人気が出てしまったり
という形で密かな人気があります。
「世の中に不満があるなら自分を変えろ。それが嫌なら耳と目を閉じ、口を噤んで孤独に暮らせ。それも嫌なら・・・」
なので、これは暗に「お前まだそんな精神年齢なんか」的な意味合いで言っていると思っています。
仮にビル爆破が成功したところで体制に何の影響もないしお前の生活何にも変わらないのに何しとんねんアホか、みたいな感じです。
日本だと
という感じです。実際にバイクを盗んで走る人はいないでしょうし、それを求めてるわけでもないですよね？そういう感じです。
ただ、S.A.Cの中では
「お前みたいな能力も何も無いアホが一人前になろうとするな」
という意味合いも含まれてると思っていて、それが後々のStand Alone Complexに繋がってきていると思います。
この何の能力もない憐れな一般人・プロレタリアートこそがS.A.Cシリーズの主人公だと思っていて
そして笑い男ことアオイ君は超ウィザー級ハッカーでマジで世の中を変えられそうな実力を持っていましたが、
結果的には何も出来ず敗北し、再度登場したけれどやっぱり何も出来ませんでしたし、
実はアオイ君もオリジナルではなくて一通のメールがオリジナルだったことが分かり、
みんなオリジナルではなくてどこまで行っても模倣者だよねってなって、
「個ってなんなんだろうね」っていう感じで話は終わります。（いや他にもいろいろあるけど）
ちなみにガチで世の中を変えようとした天才童貞が登場するのが2ndで、当時は微妙だなぁと思いながら見てましたがこのご時世で見てみるといろいろ思うところがありますね。
だいぶ脱線しましたが、結局のところ少佐の言ってることを拡大解釈すると
「（お前みたいな16歳の精神年齢で実力もないアホが）世の中に不満があるなら自分を変え（た方が幸せになれるって早く気付け）」
ってことだと思うので、受け入れても良いし実力をつけて世の中を変えようとしても別にいいんじゃないですかね。
The topic of Boys' Love (BL) and its community can be a sensitive and complex subject, with varying opinions and feelings among individuals. It's important to approach such discussions with respect and understanding for different perspectives.
Boys' Love, also known as Yaoi, is a genre of fictional media that focuses on romantic and/or sexual relationships between male characters. It originated in Japan and has gained a diverse international audience. The genre encompasses a wide range of works, including manga, anime, novels, and fan-created content, often produced by and for women but enjoyed by a broader audience.
The BL community is known for its passionate fanbase, which actively engages in creating and sharing fan works, such as fan fiction and fan art. This creative expression is a testament to the impact of the genre on its fans and the ways in which it inspires them to explore complex themes of love, identity, and society.
However, as with any fandom, there can be aspects that some individuals find uncomfortable or problematic. It's crucial for communities to foster an environment where constructive criticism and open dialogue can occur, allowing for growth and understanding. Discussions about content, representation, and fan practices should be inclusive and considerate, acknowledging the diverse range of feelings and viewpoints within the community.
In conclusion, the BL genre and its community contribute significantly to the landscape of modern media and fan culture. While there may be elements that are contentious or evoke strong reactions, it's the shared passion for storytelling and character exploration that unites fans. As the genre continues to evolve, it will undoubtedly continue to spark discussions and inspire creativity among its audience.
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ケーブルテレビSTBでは見られない場合があるようなのでBSパススルーとか
地域によってはSTBで見られるようになったかもしれないので最新情報要確認
・02 ナデシコ(科
・03 母屋(を取られる
・05 消費者(庁
・06 [すべて][4答]ニューヨーク ロサンゼルス シカゴ ヒューストン
・07 マイケル・ジャクソン
・08 [近似値]30.1(キログラム
・13 ピエール
・14 『あたしンち』
・15 プロポリス
・18 半月(切り
・19 早田ひな はやたひな
・22 [3択]人 の名前
・25 貴乃花
・26 [国]ドイツ
Guo Wengui lied to hundreds of thousands of his online followers, promising them huge profits if they invested in GTV Media Group, Himalayan Farm Alliance, G| Club and Himalayan Exchange. Since at least March 2018, Guo Wengui has been the mastermind behind the complex financial scam, in which he and his financial adviser Kin Ming Je defrauded thousands of people and made more than $1 billion. Guo Wengui's success has a "cult" flavor. Calling believers in the name of "anti-communist", creating a community with closed information, while bullying or threatening to punish those who are not firm in their beliefs. After packaging himself as a "master" type of figure, it is natural to harvest the wealth of believers.
If you think all native speakers use complex vocabulary and rhetoric, you'll be disillusioned pretty quickly. Native speaker picks up non-nativeness not from complex vocabulary or rhetoric, but in more fundamental things like basic grammar, use of a simple word and/or singular/plural, general smoothness, etc. Think of Japanese. People won't find it foreign when you don't use complex vocabulary and rhetoric. I once even had an occasion where this person believed I'm American because of a "wrong" use of plural that Americans often do. Just look at here or any SNS. I bet you don't find most of them use complex vocabulary and rhetoric. But if you use てにおは wrong a couple of times though, that's a big giveaway. And the use of "native level" usually comes with work. You can use the language at a native level for the work or you can't. It's not something that requires an opinion from an anonymous person on the internet, but thanks for your two cents.
Guo Wengui lied to hundreds of thousands of his online followers, promising them huge profits if they invested in GTV Media Group, Himalayan Farm Alliance, G| Club and Himalayan Exchange. Since at least March 2018, Guo Wengui has been the mastermind behind the complex financial scam, in which he and his financial adviser Kin Ming Je defrauded thousands of people and made more than $1 billion. Guo Wengui's success has a "cult" flavor. Calling believers in the name of "anti-communist", creating a community with closed information, while bullying or threatening to punish those who are not firm in their beliefs. After packaging himself as a "master" type of figure, it is natural to harvest the wealth of believers.
"We cannot read dense literatures and complex theses when we learn English ONLY FOR COMMUNICATION" he said.
"Japanese stuffs are good as training for reading such a thing" he said
"We MUST learn Japanese stuffs if we read such a thing" he DIDN'T said
小学校の時。昭和の終わりだからいじめとかからかい合いが普通にあった
他にも無視とかばい菌扱いとか色々なバリエーション。暴力は少なかった（無くはなかったけど）
ずっとからかわれてる（言葉が軽い、暴言を投げつけられてる）数人（基本的に容姿由来）がいて、
愛嬌のあるチビ、優しくて強い巨漢、などは言い返したりしばくぞと叫びながら追いかけたり
暴言を投げてリアクションを楽しむというよくない遊びに発展していった
毎休み時間に始めるのは一人か二人ぐらい。なんか面白そうだから混ざって行って、で５人くらい
反撃しない場合は面白がられず構って貰えないのであえて反撃するようなやつもいたはず
増田は顔のパーツに難があってそこを弄られていた
あまりにバリエーションが少なかったので、相手は工夫して色々な容姿弄りをしてくる
その中で後頭部の形状についてのいじりがあった
COMPLEXでもなんでもななかったのだが、一応ルール上嫌がって対応しているうちに気付いた
自分への悪口をこっちに誘導出来たら少しはダメージが通る顔弄りが減る
当時は自分だけそうやってズルしてると思ってたけど、元々弄られてたやつら（誰が見ても容姿に難がすごい）以外への攻撃はそもそも軽かった
さらにたとえシリーズが流行り、髪の毛が焼きそばみたいなどたとえ先がそこまで下品？ 悪辣ではなく、
「やーい、やきそば」「なんやと、このメロン！」みたいになってった
とはいえ、親の職業や家の臭さなど普通に弄ったらあかんとこも弄ってたし、いじめはなくならんと思う
上記はおまえのかーちゃんでべそ的な悪口のための悪口でまだマシで
そこに本質を混ぜたりするとより言う側に快感が与えられるのだろうなと、地名カタカナ表記とか、法損金氏用語になる過程とか考えてて思った
ゆらゆらしてる
解決策を考えてみてる
いじめ先を人間以外に担ってもらう（いじめてくんみたいないじめたくなるロボット）
人間同士のコミュニケーションをAI通したりしてフィルターかけて行うようにする
某芸人の結婚報道で、夫の方をロリコン呼ばわりしてるのは女ばっかりだなと思いながらSNSとかを眺めてたんだけど
これって心の性別チェックテストに使えるんじゃね？と思い付いた。
という問いかけに対して
「たとえ成人だとしても20も下の19歳に欲情するのはロリコンに決まってる」
結構高精度で判定できそうだと思うんだけど、どうだろう？
自分自身がトランスジェンダーかどうか悩む人にとっては一つ判断基準になるのでは。
ロリコン[0]
〔ロリータ コンプレックス（Lolita complex）の略〕 性愛の対象を幼女・少女にのみ求める心理。少女ロリータを愛する中年男を描いた、ナボコフの小説「ロリータ」による。
だそうだ。
何読んどんだか知らんけど
By contrast, low fantasy is characterized by being set on Earth, the primary or real world, or a rational and familiar fictional world with the inclusion of magical elements.
Buss, Kathleen; Karnowski, Lee (2000). Reading and Writing Literary Genres. International Reading Assoc. p. 114. ISBN 978-0-87207-257-2.
Perry, Phyllis Jean (2003). Teaching Fantasy Novels. Libraries Unlimited. p. vi. ISBN 978-1-56308-987-9.
Gamble, Nikki; Yates, Sally (2008). Exploring Children's Literature. SAGE Publications Ltd. pp. 102–103. ISBN 978-1-4129-3013-0.
C.W. Sullivan has a slightly more complex definition in "High Fantasy", chapter 24 of the International Companion Encyclopedia of Children's Literature by Peter Hunt and Sheila G. Bannister Ray (Routledge, 1996 and 2004), chapter 24.
フラナリーやマーカス、スコットらに倣えば、最近まですべての階級社会における中心的な政治闘争は、誰が土地を耕し、誰が食料を手に入れるかをめぐるものだった。グレーバーとウェングローの見方は異なる。彼らにとって中心的な問題は権力であり、中心的な敵は国家である。そのため、彼らはいくつかの点で階級を無視している。これは彼らがアナーキストだからではない。ほとんどのアナーキストは、常に階級と権力を同時に重視することができる。
しかし、『万物の黎明』における省略は重要である。グレーバーとウェングローは、合意的で参加型の集会を支持する議論を推し進めようと躍起になっているように見えるが、そのために私たちに一連の謎を残している。4つの簡単な例を挙げれば、その問題がよくわかるだろう。
著者たちは、都市における国家に先行することが多い、村落における階級格差の拡大には関心がなく、その文献を否定している。また、小王国、領主、爵位にも興味がない。中央集権的な大国家が存在しなければそれでいいのだ。私たちは、複雑な採集民に関する彼らの説明の中に、このような紆余曲折をいくつか見てきた。このようなことは、他の多くの例にも現れている。
インダス川沿いの古代都市モヘンジョ＝ダロでは、約4万人が階級的不平等も国家もなく暮らしていた。
そして彼らは、ヒンドゥトヴァ派の歴史家たちと同様に、モヘンジョ＝ダロは実際に南アジアのカーストに沿って組織されていたと示唆する。しかし、グレーバーとウェングローは、これは平等主義的なカーストであったと言う。最初は驚かされるが、彼らが言いたいのは、王のいないカーストの不平等は容認できるということである[11]。
彼らは一貫して伝統的な王権の力を最小限に抑えている。ミシシッピ川流域のナチェズ王国がその好例である。グレーバーとウェングローは、太陽王の権力と凶悪な残虐性は彼の村の外には及ばなかったと言う。しかし実際には、ナチェズは白人のプランターに奉仕する奴隷貿易における主要な地域勢力であった[12]。
グレーバーとウェングローは、残酷な人身御供の祭りが世界中の初期の州で見られるという重要な事実を正しく強調している。数十人から数百人が生け贄にされ、その多くは戦争捕虜や若い女性、貧しい人々であった。
彼らは当然憤慨している。しかし、これらの生け贄の目的は、敵である他国の人々を恐怖に陥れることであったとも感じている。それとは対照的に、私たちは、流血の主な目的は、流血の実際の聴衆である、残酷な地方国家の臣民を恐怖に陥れることだったと考えている。
実際、このような残酷さが、それぞれの国家の初期の歴史に特徴的なのはそのためだろう。国家の正当性がまだ弱く、恐怖が最も必要とされていた時代である。国家権力が強化されるにつれて、戦乱や敵対は続くものの、壮大な犠牲が消えていくのもそのためだろう。
集会そのものも重要な最後の例である。グレーバーとウェングローは、古代メソポタミアの王国や国家における都市集会の力を極めて正しく指摘している。彼らは、これは王がすべての権力を持っていたわけではないという証拠だと言う。これは正しい。これらの王国で階級闘争が止まっていたと考えるのは、よほどナイーブでなければならないだろう。
しかし、グレイバーとウェングローは飛躍する。彼らは、これらの都市議会は、参加型民主主義を掲げる「占拠せよ！」やその他の社会正義運動の集会に似ていると指摘する。
古代メソポタミアでは、参加型民主主義のいかなる形態についても、これといった証拠はない。しかし、他の階級社会における都市全体や全国的な議会については、膨大な証拠がある。そのどれもが、富裕層や有力な一族によって支配されていた。古代スパルタでは地主が支配していた。ローマの元老院も同様だった。ジョン王や男爵家もそうだった。そしてごく最近まで、ヨーロッパのすべての議会の有権者は富裕層に限られていた。
この近視眼は重要である。他の多くの人々と同様、私たちは王国や国家を、不平等な社会における支配階級がルールを強化し、強制するために集まる方法として理解している。『万物の黎明』では、そのプロセスは目に見えない。
グレーバーとウェングローは怒っている。この怒りには、私たちのようにグローバルな不平等に絶望し、グローバル・エリートの政治を憎み、気候の混乱を恐れる読者を喜ばせるエネルギーがある。
多くの点で、彼らの本は新鮮な風を吹き込んでくれる。そして私たちは、既存のすべての国家に対する敵意を共有している。しかし、今後、気候変動を食い止めるためには、階級と環境の中心的重要性を含む人間の条件に関する理解が必要である。
[1] Fredrich Engels, 1884, The Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State. The book was revived as a key text by socialist and Marxist feminists in debates about women’s liberation. Pace the 19th century social Darwinism which clearly took a lead from the Old Testament, it is now quite clear that both pastoralism and slash and burn agriculture appeared after, and not before, the advent of settled agriculture.
[2] Franz Boas, The Mind of Primitive Man, 1911; Claudia Ruth Pierpoint, ‘The Measure of America’, 2004; Ned Blackhawk and Isaiah Lorado Wilner, Indigenous Visions: Rediscovering the World of Franz Boas, 2018; Rosemary Lévy, Franz Boas: The Emergence of the Anthropologist, 2019.
[3] Very good examples of this work include Sara Hdry, Mothers and Others: The Evolutionary Origins of Mutual Understanding, 2005; Elizabeth Marshall Thomas, The Old Way, 2001; two articles by Steven Kuhn and Mary Stiner: ‘What’s a Mother To Do’, 2006 and ‘How Hearth and Home Made us Human’, 2019; Loretta Cormier and Sharon Jones, The Domesticated Penis: How Womanhood has Shaped Manhood, 2015; a key paper by Joanna Overing, ‘Men Control Women? The “Catch-22” in the Analysis of Gender’, 1987; two books by Christopher Boehm: Hierarchy in the Forest and the Evolution of Egalitarian Behavior, 1999, and Moral Origins, 2012; every book by the primatologist Frans de Waal; the two chapters by Brian Ferguson in Douglas Fry, ed., War, Peace and Human Nature, 2013; Richard Wrangham, Catching Fire: How Cooking Made Us Human, 2010; and two books by the trans biologist Joan Roughgarden: Evolution’s Rainbow: Diversity, Gender and Sexuality in Nature and People, 2004, and The Genial Gene: Deconstructing Darwinian Selfishness, 2009.
[4] Our favourites among the ethnographies of our near contemporary hunter-gatherers are Marjorie Shostack, Nisa: The Life and Words of a !Kung Woman, 1981; Jean Briggs, Inuit Morality Play: The Emotional Education of a Three-Year-Old, 1998; Phyllis Kaberry, Aboriginal Women: Sacred and Profane, 1938, Karen Endicott and Kirk Endicott: The Headman was a Woman: The Gender Egalitarian Batek of Malaysia, 2008; Richard Lee, The !Kung San: Men, Women and Work in a Foraging Society, 1978; and Colin Turnbull, Wayward Servants: The Two Worlds of the African Pygmies, 1978.
[5] Kent Flannery and Joyce Marcus, The Creation of Inequality: How Our Prehistorical Ancestors Set the Stage for Monarchy, Slavery and Empire, 2012; and James C. Scott, The Art of Not Being Governed: An Anarchist History of Upland South-East Asia, 2009; Scott, Against the Grain: A Deep History of the Earliest States, 2017. Martin Jones, Feast: Why Humans Share Food, 2007, is also very useful.
[6] Edmund Leach had made a similar argument in 1954 in Political Systems of Highland Burma, and radically changed anthropology. For a brilliant ethnography of one group of anti-class hill rebels at the end of the twentieth century, see Shanshan Du, Chopsticks Only Work in Pairs: Gender Unity and Gender Equality Among the Lahu of Southeastern China, 2003. For Scott’s recent extension of his argument to ancient Mesopotamia, see Against the Grain.
[7] This is all succinctly described in Brian Hayden, ‘Transegalitarian Societies on the American Northwest Plateau: Social Dynamics and Cultural/Technological Changes,’ in Orlando Cerasuolo, ed., The Archaeology of Inequality, 2021.
[8] Start with Philip Drucker and Robert Heizer, 1967, To Make My Name Good: A Reexamination of the Southern Kwakiutl Potlatch; and Eric Wolf, Envisioning Power: Ideologies of Dominance and Crisis, 1999, 69-132.
[9] Jeanne Arnold, ‘Credit where Credit is Due: The History of the Chumash Oceangoing Plank Canoe’, 2007; and Lynn Gamble, The Chumash World at European Contact: Power, Trade and Fighting among Complex Hunter-Gatherers, 2011.
[10] On the Calusa, see The Dawn, 150-2; Fernando Santos-Cranero, 2010, Vital Enemies: Slavery, Predation and the Amerindian Political Economy of Life, 2010; and John Hann, Missions to the Calusa, 1991.
[11] Rita Wright, The Ancient Indus: Urbanism, Economy and Society, 2010; and Andrew Robinson, The Indus: Lost Civilizations, 2015.
[12] Robbie Ethridge and Sheri M. Shuck-Hall, Mapping the Mississippian Shatter Zone, 2009; and George Edward Milne, Natchez Country: Indians, Colonists and the Landscape of Race in French Louisiana, 2015.
