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はてなキーワード: the theとは
Although what causes pedophilia is not yet known, researchers began reporting a series of findings linking pedophilia with brain structure and function, beginning in 2002. Testing individuals from a variety of referral sources inside and outside the criminal justice system as well as controls, these studies found associations between pedophilia and lower IQs,[48][49][50] poorer scores on memory tests,[49] greater rates of non-right-handedness,[48][49][51][52] greater rates of school grade failure over and above the IQ differences,[53] lesser physical height,[54][55] greater probability of having suffered childhood head injuries resulting in unconsciousness,[56][57] and several differences in MRI-detected brain structures.[58][59][60]
Such studies suggest that there are one or more neurological characteristics present at birth that cause or increase the likelihood of being pedophilic. Some studies have found that pedophiles are less cognitively impaired than non-pedophilic child molesters.[61] A 2011 study reported that pedophilic child molesters had deficits in response inhibition, but no deficits in memory or cognitive flexibility.[62] Evidence of familial transmittability "suggests, but does not prove that genetic factors are responsible" for the development of pedophilia.[63] A 2015 study indicated that pedophilic offenders have a normal IQ.[64]
Another study, using structural MRI, indicated that male pedophiles have a lower volume of white matter than a control group.[58] Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) has indicated that child molesters diagnosed with pedophilia have reduced activation of the hypothalamus as compared with non-pedophilic persons when viewing sexually arousing pictures of adults.[65] A 2008 functional neuroimaging study notes that central processing of sexual stimuli in heterosexual "paedophile forensic inpatients" may be altered by a disturbance in the prefrontal networks, which "may be associated with stimulus-controlled behaviours, such as sexual compulsive behaviours". The findings may also suggest "a dysfunction at the cognitive stage of sexual arousal processing".[66]
Blanchard, Cantor, and Robichaud (2006) reviewed the research that attempted to identify hormonal aspects of pedophiles.[67] They concluded that there is some evidence that pedophilic men have less testosterone than controls, but that the research is of poor quality and that it is difficult to draw any firm conclusion from it.
While not causes of pedophilia themselves, childhood abuse by adults or comorbid psychiatric illnesses—such as personality disorders and substance abuse—are risk factors for acting on pedophilic urges.[6] Blanchard, Cantor, and Robichaud addressed comorbid psychiatric illnesses that, "The theoretical implications are not so clear. Do particular genes or noxious factors in the prenatal environment predispose a male to develop both affective disorders and pedophilia, or do the frustration, danger, and isolation engendered by unacceptable sexual desires—or their occasional furtive satisfaction—lead to anxiety and despair?"[67] They indicated that, because they previously found mothers of pedophiles to be more likely to have undergone psychiatric treatment,[56] the genetic possibility is more likely.
A study analyzing the sexual fantasies of 200 heterosexual men by using the Wilson Sex Fantasy Questionnaire exam determined that males with a pronounced degree of paraphilic interest (including pedophilia) had a greater number of older brothers, a high 2D:4D digit ratio (which would indicate low prenatal androgen exposure), and an elevated probability of being left-handed, suggesting that disturbed hemispheric brain lateralization may play a role in deviant attractions.[68]
For the time being, the theme of gender discrimination has been actively discussing at MASUDA.
"For the time being" は「今の所」(*until some other arrangement is made*) の意味があるので Recently とかが穏当． あと has actively been *discussed* ですね．
It will be evidence that people's attention is gathered to various problems and inconsistencies arising from gender difference between men and women.
Spotlight is starting to be applied to the darkness that has been overlooked so far.
It will be *the* evidence. ですが別に今後証拠になるだろうという文面ではないので It is the evidence とか It signifies とかでいいのではないでしょうか． Spotlight は apply より focus とか put をよく使うようです．
Before Human underlying desire ~ the transformation desire as LGBT deliver the death blow against Japan which is declined birthrate, Japanese must bring back from the dark side to the light side.
これは*the desire underlying humanity* とかのほうがスッキリしそう． which *has* declining birthrate とか， whose birth rate is declining, かな
迷える子羊は stray の方をつかうのでそっちに合わせてもいいかも．
流し読みで失礼しました．
I noticed that 10 years passed since I started writing blogs.
While the world is increasingly connected to NET and scarping the gap between those who have information and those who do not have it every day, I think that it is unhappy that violence due to concentration of wealth is increasingly increasing power.
It is "religion" that is surprisingly personally surviving.
A certain great scholar is said to have said that "Religion is a drug of the poor"
Now that mobile phones are spreading in countries called poorest countries and the Internet covers the world now
I want to wish that such common sense is another few years of life.
"Enlightenment" which is the difference between religious leader and believer is only a concept,
The fact that Islam society does not accept social advancement as much as treating women,
It does not match the present era.
I feel even dizzy to the extent of Americans who still do not believe in the theory of evolution,
I think that it is sick if you are watching Korea who is singing and saying that it is the place of origin of its own country keyy.
I welcome the fact that China, which is misunderstood as a nationwide all countries other than his country, is finally getting cold from a hangover,
I am impressed with Putin who is handling Russia brilliantly but vodka is about to expire soon.
President of the world's largest military superpower, Christians of discrimination will truly be overworked by esprit.
The door to World War III has been opening much more than I feel.
It might be a trial from Gaia against an overly populated population.
ふとblogを書き始めて１０年経過したことに気づいた。
世の中はますますNETにつながれ情報を持つ者と持たざる者の格差を日々スキャルピングしているなか、富の集中による暴力がますます力を増大させているのは不幸な事だと思う。
とあるお偉い学者先生は「宗教は貧者の麻薬だ」と言ったそうだが、
最貧国と呼ばれた国にも携帯電話が普及してインターネットが世界を覆っている今
イスラム教社会が女性を大切にするあまり社会進出を認めないのは、
今の時代にそぐわない。
未だに進化論を信じないアメリカ人の多さには目眩すら感じるが、
なんでも自国が発祥の地だと謳いキーキー騒いでる韓国なんかみてると病気だと思う。
自国以外の国は全て属国と勘違いしている中国が最近やっと二日酔いから冷めつつあるのには歓迎もするが、
ロシアを見事にハンドリングしているプーチンには感心するもそろそろウォッカが切れてきた。
世界一の軍事大国の大統領が差別主義のキリスト教徒なんてさすがにエスプリ効きすぎだろう。
The Swedish integration debate should focus on the difficult trade-offs needed in a country that is not structurally optimal for immigration, rather than getting bogged down in the semantics of racism, argues political scientist Andreas Johansson Heinö.
There is a lack of political action in Sweden to address integration that has long been compensated by strong rhetoric that bashes old policies. "We might even stop talking about immigration policy," Ola Ullsten, a prominent Liberal Party (Folkpartiet) politician, said in the 1970s.
When the term "integration" came into vogue in the 1990s, it was meant to replace the then stigmatized concept of multiculturalism. And when Iranian-born professor Masoud Kamali presented the findings of a state inquiry on structural discrimination in 2006, the solution was to scrap integration policy.
More recently, some suggested ahead of the Social Democrats' party congress in Gothenburg last week that if they take power, they should abolish the job of integration minister all together. The party's governing board said that integration is "a problematic concept" that should preferably not be used.
Commentators from different political camps applauded the initiative.
Per Wirtén, a columnist with the centre-left Dagens Arena newspaper, wrote that he sympathizes with the spirit of the proposal, but would rather see a name change: let one anti-racism minister take over the fight against "structural racial discrimination."
The word "immigrant" has been purged from the new proposed party programme. While both the 1990 and 2001 programmes dealt with integration problems, the 2013 analysis says it time to face racism with a general policy of equality. The programme warns that "poor groups and impoverished areas" will be translated into an ethnic problem in the public debate. Accordingly, the Social Democrats have since called itself an "anti-racist" party.
Is this a return to traditional social democratic equality policy, a settlement with the last remnants of the craze for identity politics under the former leadership of Mona Sahlin? Hardly.
It had been a little situation of one's before one of the many high-end camera makers learned the particular Live life Access manner with a DIGITAL SLR requested a good online video media picture after which you can created a way to help you listing the item. Olympus seemed to be hinting at the capability in Present cards 2006, as soon as E-330 (the very first video camera by means of survive viewing) is released. Nonetheless Nikon was towards the blog post while using the D90 along with Cannon is definitely soon after along with the just-announced Canon EOD 5D Mark II Battery.
Typically the 12. 3-megapixel D90 carries LARGE DEFINITION online video from a conclusion with 1280 back button 720 pixels at 27 frames/second using the understanding and also depth-of-field restrain which usually simply a DIGITAL SLR offer. Naturally, Nikon isn't going to space an expensive precedence about this skill (and not undertake most people, finding the software when alot more of the adjunct you'll take advantage of once in a while, than only a main objective just for obtaining that D90). But, because this can be a 'world first', Photography Analyze is going to tackle the application ahead of moving on that will alternative further important qualities.
Virtually no owner guide book was initially supplied with a analysis camera still (after some hassles) most of us made it possible to down load an important PDF FILE type from Nikon European union ?nternet site. Surprisingly, this manually operated exclusively devotes one-and-a-half of 270 pages of content for you to video clip producing tasks and approximately a couple thirds of the site to help you videos playback. Less a page can be specified up to a show frame proportions in addition to appear possible choices : the 120 websites following on from the primary arguments belonging to the video clip manner.
Picture Abilities
Training video in any DIGITAL CAMERA is really a important loan -- primarily for the Nikon D90 Battery cost. Beforehand, any time you required a fabulous video camera by using compatible contact lenses, which you were taking a look at round $7000 for just a unit which will would not quite possibly track record high-definition, widescreen picture. However the D90 presents way more for just a cheaper package price by providing visitors while using same sorts of manipulate in excess of centering, subjection and additionally depth-of-field like they have having a DIGITAL CAMERA digicam, combined internet site snap by using almost any Nikkor website.
But, the actual D90's online video media model is absolutely not fantastic. As movie can certainly sole often be captured throughout Are located Perspective application, you are jammed aided by the prohibitions this means that (see below). The actual noise is normally taped monaurally and then the video recording formatting is certainly AVI which will, even though it truly is best with a large number of updating functions, uses so much ram (roughly 400MB for minute). Within assessments, some 24-second cut saved for 1280 times 720 LARGE DEFINITION method for 176 kbps appeared to be 40. 7MB dimensions.
Amazingly, this high-end camera works iwth using the premier random access memory playing cards. SOME SORT OF 32GB SDHC should help you track record as much as sixty units for training video, even though a different reduction is definitely which will video plans will be available to personal training minutes for HARLEY-DAVIDSON function and 20 short minutes with typical quality.
Saddest of can be the possibility that any autofocusing procedure :Nikon D90 Charger as well as some other primary adjustments - are not to be implemented if you find yourself photographing online video media. You can actually place emphasis quickly well before taking any preview not to mention make use of the manual place emphasis wedding ring within the contact lens even while photographing. Although if the content steps near as well as from everyone as long as you're taking, blurring might be unavoidable.
Different works that need to be placed well before taking a good movie involve getting exposed compensation, vivid white stability in addition to tact surroundings. For anyone utilizing aperture-priority AE, you can actually transformation a aperture functions even though tracking your movie and as well lens quality in and additionally available - nevertheless it will be hazardous seeing that sticking to center is usually hard.
Well before beginning online video grab you have to find the wished-for audio mode from Dvd movie Controls sub-menu while in the firing navigation. 3 selections are offered: 1280 back button 720 (16: 9), 640 back button 424 (3: 2) not to mention 320 x 216 (3: 2). You too can change this reasonable producing at as well as out (the default setting up might be ON).
Most of online video media photographing pattern goes as follows:
1. Arranged this high-end camera to have Perspective way by simply hitting a LV tab.
step 2. Target about them just by half-pressing a shutter mouse if you are throughout autofocus form; also concentrate personally.
3. Marketing a O . K . key in the center from the arrow topper to get started producing.
check out. Prevent the theme presented plus centred throughout the taking progression.Nikon Coolpix S3100 Charger for anyone within information option, you can actually switch totally focus by hand while you step on the way to and / or clear of this issue. Cautious mainly vigilant while blasting close-ups when smallish differences within the place emphasis position can display simply because blurring on the content. (To confuse issues, you'll find it tough to ascertain if the appearance within the LCD is definitely pin-sharp through bright normal light while you can not use a viewfinder on Take up residence Check out manner. )
5. To cure documenting, advertising OKAY all over again.
Taking part in lower back taped video tutorials is simple. Mass media all the LV control key the next time for you to disengage Live life Watch consequently touch typically the review button in the software. Make use of the arrow mattress pad to pick out your snap you need to have fun with not to mention press RIGHT to begin the process preventing this video clip playback.
Digital cameras are made in a wide range of sizes, prices and capabilities. The majority are camera phones, operated as a mobile application through the cellphone menu. Professional photographers and many amateurs use larger, more expensive digital single-lens reflex cameras (DSLR) for their greater versatility. Between these extremes lie digital compact cameras and bridge digital cameras that "bridge" the gap between amateur and professional cameras. Specialized cameras including multispectral imaging equipment and astrographs continue to serve the scientific, military, medical and other special purposes for which digital photography was invented.
Subcompact with lens assembly retracted
Compact cameras are designed to be tiny and portable and are particularly suitable for casual and "snapshot" uses. Hence, they are also called point-and-shoot cameras. The smallest, generally less than 20 mm thick, are described as subcompacts or "ultra-compacts" and some are nearly credit card size.[2]
Most, apart from ruggedized or water-resistant models, incorporate a retractable lens assembly allowing a thin camera to have a moderately long focal length and thus fully exploit an image sensor larger than that on a camera phone, and a mechanized lens cap to cover the lens when retracted. The retracted and capped lens is protected from keys, coins and other hard objects, thus making it a thin, pocketable package. Subcompacts commonly have one lug and a short wrist strap which aids extraction from a pocket, while thicker compacts may have two lugs for attaching a neck strap.
Compact cameras are usually designed to be easy to use, sacrificing advanced features and picture quality for compactness and simplicity; images can usually only be stored using lossy compression (JPEG). Most have a built-in flash usually of low power, sufficient for nearby subjects. Live preview is almost always used to frame the photo. Most have limited motion picture capability. Compacts often have macro capability and zoom lenses but the zoom range is usually less than for bridge and DSLR cameras. Generally a contrast-detect autofocus system, using the image data from the live preview feed of the main imager, focuses the lens.
Typically, these cameras incorporate a nearly silent leaf shutter into their lenses.
For lower cost and smaller size, these cameras typically use image sensors with a diagonal of approximately 6 mm, corresponding to a crop factor around 6. This gives them weaker low-light performance, greater depth of field, generally closer focusing ability, and smaller components than cameras using larger sensors.
Starting in 2011, some compact digital cameras can take 3D still photos. These 3D compact stereo cameras can capture 3D panoramic photos for play back on a 3D TV.[3] Some of these are rugged and waterproof, and some have GPS, compass, barometer and altimeter. [4]
Main article: Bridge camera
Bridge are higher-end digital cameras that physically and ergonomically resemble DSLRs and share with them some advanced features, but share with compacts the use of a fixed lens and a small sensor. Like compacts, most use live preview to frame the image. Their autofocus uses the same contrast-detect mechanism, but many bridge cameras have a manual focus mode, in some cases using a separate focus ring, for greater control. They originally "bridged" the gap between affordable point-and-shoot cameras and the then unaffordable earlier digital SLRs.
Due to the combination of big physical size but a small sensor, many of these cameras have very highly specified lenses with large zoom range and fast aperture, partially compensating for the inability to change lenses. On some, the lens qualifies as superzoom. To compensate for the lesser sensitivity of their small sensors, these cameras almost always include an image stabilization system to enable longer handheld exposures.
These cameras are sometimes marketed as and confused with digital SLR cameras since the appearance is similar. Bridge cameras lack the reflex viewing system of DSLRs, are usually fitted with fixed (non-interchangeable) lenses (although some have a lens thread to attach accessory wide-angle or telephoto converters), and can usually take movies with sound. The scene is composed by viewing either the liquid crystal display or the electronic viewfinder (EVF). Most have a longer shutter lag than a true dSLR, but they are capable of good image quality (with sufficient light) while being more compact and lighter than DSLRs. High-end models of this type have comparable resolutions to low and mid-range DSLRs. Many of these cameras can store images in a Raw image format, or processed and JPEG compressed, or both. The majority have a built-in flash similar to those found in DSLRs.
In bright sun, the quality difference between a good compact camera and a digital SLR is minimal but bridgecams are more portable, cost less and have a similar zoom ability to dSLR. Thus a Bridge camera may better suit outdoor daytime activities, except when seeking professional-quality photos.[5]
In low light conditions and/or at ISO equivalents above 800, most bridge cameras (or megazooms) lack in image quality when compared to even entry level DSLRs. However, they do have one major advantage: their much larger depth of field due to the small sensor as compared to a DSLR, allowing larger apertures with shorter exposure times.
A 3D Photo Mode was introduced in 2011, whereby the camera automatically takes a second image from a slightly different perspective and provides a standard .MPO file for stereo display. [6]
[edit]Mirrorless interchangeable-lens camera
Main article: Mirrorless interchangeable-lens camera
In late 2008, a new type of camera emerged, combining the larger sensors and interchangeable lenses of DSLRs with the live-preview viewing system of compact cameras, either through an electronic viewfinder or on the rear LCD. These are simpler and more compact than DSLRs due to the removal of the mirror box, and typically emulate the handling and ergonomics of either DSLRs or compacts. The system is used by Micro Four Thirds, borrowing components from the Four Thirds DSLR system.
[edit]Digital single lens reflex cameras
Cutaway of an Olympus E-30 DSLR
Main article: Digital single-lens reflex camera
Digital single-lens reflex cameras (DSLRs) are digital cameras based on film single-lens reflex cameras (SLRs). They take their name from their unique viewing system, in which a mirror reflects light from the lens through a separate optical viewfinder. At the moment of exposure the mirror flips out of the way, making a distinctive "clack" sound and allowing light to fall on the imager.
Since no light reaches the imager during framing, autofocus is accomplished using specialized sensors in the mirror box itself. Most 21st century DSLRs also have a "live view" mode that emulates the live preview system of compact cameras, when selected.
These cameras have much larger sensors than the other types, typically 18 mm to 36 mm on the diagonal (crop factor 2, 1.6, or 1). This gives them superior low-light performance, less depth of field at a given aperture, and a larger size.
They make use of interchangeable lenses; each major DSLR manufacturer also sells a line of lenses specifically intended to be used on their cameras. This allows the user to select a lens designed for the application at hand: wide-angle, telephoto, low-light, etc. So each lens does not require its own shutter, DSLRs use a focal-plane shutter in front of the imager, behind the mirror.
Main article: Rangefinder camera#Digital rangefinder
A rangefinder is a user-operated optical mechanism to measure subject distance once widely used on film cameras. Most digital cameras measure subject distance automatically using electro-optical techniques, but it is not customary to say that they have a rangefinder.
[edit]Line-scan camera systems
A line-scan camera is a camera device containing a line-scan image sensor chip, and a focusing mechanism. These cameras are almost solely used in industrial settings to capture an image of a constant stream of moving material. Unlike video cameras, line-scan cameras use a single row of pixel sensors, instead of a matrix of them. Data coming from the line-scan camera has a frequency, where the camera scans a line, waits, and repeats. The data coming from the line-scan camera is commonly processed by a computer, to collect the one-dimensional line data and to create a two-dimensional image. The collected two-dimensional image data is then processed by image-processing methods for industrial purposes.
Further information: Rotating line camera
Many devices include digital cameras built into or integrated into them. For example, mobile phones often include digital cameras; those that do are known as camera phones. Other small electronic devices (especially those used for communication) such as PDAs, laptops and BlackBerry devices often contain an integral digital camera, and most 21st century camcorders can also make still pictures.
Due to the limited storage capacity and general emphasis on convenience rather than image quality, almost all these integrated or converged devices store images in the lossy but compact JPEG file format.
Mobile phones incorporating digital cameras were introduced in Japan in 2001 by J-Phone. In 2003 camera phones outsold stand-alone digital cameras, and in 2006 they outsold all film-based cameras and digital cameras combined. These camera phones reached a billion devices sold in only five years, and by 2007 more than half of the installed base of all mobile phones were camera phones. Sales of separate cameras peaked in 2008. [7]
Integrated cameras tend to be at the very lowest end of the scale of digital cameras in technical specifications, such as resolution, optical quality, and ability to use accessories. With rapid development, however, the gap between mainstream compact digital cameras and camera phones is closing, and high-end camera phones are competitive with low-end stand-alone digital cameras of the same generation.
A Canon WP-1 waterproof 35 mm film camera
Waterproof digital cameras are digital cameras that can make pictures underwater. Waterproof housings have long been made but they cost almost as the cameras. Many waterproof digital cameras are shockproof and resistant to low temperatures; one of them is Canon PowerShot D10, one of the first underwater digital cameras.
These cameras become very popular during the holiday season, because many people want to save the best moments from their holidays at the seaside. Waterproof watches and mobile phones were produced earlier. Most makers of digital cameras also produce waterproof ones and every year they launch at least one new model, for example Sony, Olympus, Canon, Fuji.
Healthways Mako Shark, an early waterproof camera,[8] was launched in 1958 and cost around 25 dollars. It was a huge camera and pictures were black and white.
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I finally understood something. A cliche, but something that is important to me.
I've seen nine counselors and four psychiatrists since I was eighteen. I've been sexually and verbally abused by my family, had eating problems, both anorexia and bulimia, and have also been abused by two of the therapists. I'm also a returnee, as the Japanese label me, so I've been bullied at school, and never really felt like I fit in anywhere, including my family. Yes, I had a whole lot of problems.
I always though about killing myself, and it was a ritual to think about whether to die and how to live at the top of a building on my birthday night. The air was always cold and clear, and stars just seem so near. Up there, rationality just seemed to blur, and wrong or right became so dull with all the pain. As a person who believes Christ, or perhaps in any other religion, suicide is a sin, but it literally felt like living in hell.
Nevertheless, now I finally understand. It was the sense of isolation and hunger of being accepted, that had been eating me after all. It's such a cliche, but I guess it's true. It irritates me because not one of the therapists were capable of handling a bilingual, abused and wounded person, and I myself never realized how much trouble I had when the other person was only capable of handling Japanese, although I am as good as a native after living here twenty years. Some of the therapists were trained and licensed in U.S. and spoke English, but I also didn't notice the huge difference of them and myself -- I can't give an explicit example, but I guess being a returnee and a natural interpreter gives people a different sense. Now, I clearly see the difference is not ignorable. And, it's almost unbelievable that it took me so long to come to this point.
I hate myself. I hate myself for not realizing all these years, for all the money I spent on therapy, for being abused, for being abused again by a therapist, for not being able to communicate my feelings and for even ignoring my own senses just to be accepted by my therapists themselves.
Perhaps being bilingual to me is much more troublesome than others say. Hopefully I can now be more comfortable by accepting that I'm like a gypsy. I've always been an outlaw, anyway. And I hope I can be able to connect with people and have real relationships. All the things I wanted from a therapist are the same things I wanted from normal other human beings. I know there are things that need to be covered by professionals, but now that I realize even professionals can't help, and I can't be really accepted by any professional, as long the relationship is kept "professional."
I hope I can sometime make a real relationship, accept and be accepted, by another person, maybe another gypsy.
グールド自身による（自己の言説の歪曲された利用への）反論（訳は大意）
[T]ransitions are often found in the fossil record. Preserved transitions are not common -- and should not be, according to our understanding of evolution (see next section) but they are not entirely wanting, as creationists often claim. [He then discusses two examples: therapsid intermediaries between reptiles and mammals, and the half-dozen human species - found as of 1981 - that appear in an unbroken temporal sequence of progressively more modern features.]
移行形態の化石記録はしばしば発見されています。保存された移行形態は一般的ではありませんが、そしてそれは私たちの断続平行説が正しいのであればそうあるべきですが、まったく欠如している、そう創造論者は主張していますが、そういうわけではありません。
Faced with these facts of evolution and the philosophical bankruptcy of their own position, creationists rely upon distortion and innuendo to buttress their rhetorical claim. If I sound sharp or bitter, indeed I am -- for I have become a major target of these practices.
こういった進化の事実と彼ら自身の哲学的立場の破綻に直面して、創造論者は彼らの修辞的な主張を強化するために、歪曲と暗示に頼っています。もし私が辛辣に見えるのならば、実際その通りなのですが、それは私が彼らの実践の主要なターゲットとなっているからです。
I count myself among the evolutionists who argue for a jerky, or episodic, rather than a smoothly gradual, pace of change. In 1972 my colleague Niles Eldredge and I developed the theory of punctuated equilibrium. We argued that two outstanding facts of the fossil record -- geologically "sudden" origin of new species and failure to change thereafter (stasis) -- reflect the predictions of evolutionary theory, not the imperfections of the fossil record. In most theories, small isolated populations are the source of new species, and the process of speciation takes thousands or tens of thousands of years. This amount of time, so long when measured against our lives, is a geological microsecond . . .
私は自分を徐々に漸進的に変化が起きるというよりも、気まぐれで断続的に起きると考える進化論者のひとりであると考えています。
Since we proposed punctuated equilibria to explain trends, it is infuriating to be quoted again and again by creationists -- whether through design or stupidity, I do not know -- as admitting that the fossil record includes no transitional forms. Transitional forms are generally lacking at the species level, but they are abundant between larger groups.
（変化に）波があることを説明するために私たちが断続的平衡を主張して以来、何度も何度も創造論者によってデザインやなにやらを通じて、私が化石記録は移行形態を含まないと認めていると引用されたのは、はらわたの煮えくりかえる思いです。移行形態は一般的に種の水準では欠如していますが、それより大きいグループの間では豊富に存在するのです。
Dunkan Black の The Theory of Committees and Elections に載っている、C. L. Dodgeson の投票理論についての業績の紹介が面白い。この本は 1998 に K. Arrow 以降の展開について増補した新版が出ているが、私が持ってるのは 1966 年あたりのもので、序文に Arrow の業績には触れないと書いてある。
おぼつかない英語力で読んだ限りでは、どうもオックスフォードの学部入学以来クライストチャーチ学寮の終生の住人であった Dodgeson は学内での決め事の改善を目的として独自に投票の理論を発達させたらしく、Condorcet らの先行研究はおろか、(統計の父といわれる) Galton らの同時代の研究も参照していなかった。Black が主張するその論拠というのがひどくて、ともかく彼は文学は読んでも同業者の業績を読まなかったし(とは E.T.Bell の主張)、Condorcet らの業績の含まれているクライストチャーチ唯一の(当然フランス語の)蔵書の封は(WW2後と思われる調査当時に至ってなお)切られていなかったとか、もういったいどんだけ引きこもりなんだよと。本当に絶対に見てねーんだろーなー？
それでも彼の(現存する唯一の、彼自身の所有していた)パンフレットには Condorcet の条件と同じものが現れていた。つまりこれは独力で同じ結論にたどりついたということだ。
なお Dodgeson は行列式の著書をものしたのち(これは『アリス』の次の本も、と所望した女王に献呈されたという真偽不明の笑い話があるくらいでよく知られている)、記号論理学の初期の研究にのめりこむ一方で初等課程向けの教科書ばっかり書いていて、要するに数学の研究者としては時代に先駆けすぎている上に怠け者であったようだ。
ちなみに Liddell 家(Alice の家族)の話も書いてあって家族ぐるみのつきあいだったとか、投票の理論の動機に連なる経緯も書いてあったのだが理解できなかった。
もちろんこんな面白い話は『きめ方の論理』には載ってなかった(‥っと思う、手元にいまない)。なぜかというと、Dodgeson の研究は後世に引き継がれることがなかったからだ。論理学の研究にしても、パズル的なものだったようで、Dodgeson を Frege あたりが参照するようなことはたぶんなかったのだろう(Smullyan は確実にネタにしてそうだ)。
面白さの質は Wittgenstein の火かき棒事件の顛末とか、そういうものに似ている。正直読んでいてアニメ「R.O.D.」の登場人物、読子さんの気分がちょっとわかった気がする。社会的選択理論はこの際どうでもよい。書痴に対する最悪の部類の釣り針であると思った。おそらく英国のカレッジ文化そのものがそうなのだろう。
